Naturist Activities on Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction

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2017.01.21 Springer Link

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2017.01.16 Vimeo (1:56)

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Abstract

Body image dissatisfaction is a serious, global problem that negatively affects life satisfaction. Several claims have been made about the possible psychological benefits of naturist activities, but very little empirical research has investigated these benefits or any plausible explanations for them. In three studies—one large-scale, cross-sectional study (n = 849), and 2 prospective studies (n = 24, n = 100) this research developed and applied knowledge about the possible benefits of naturist activities. It was found that more participation in naturist activities predicted greater life satisfaction—a relationship that was mediated by more positive body image, and higher self-esteem (Study 1). Applying these findings, it was found that participation in actual naturist activities led to an increase in life satisfaction, an effect that was also mediated by improvements in body image and self-esteem (Studies 2 and 3). The potential benefits of naturism are discussed, as well as possible future research, and implications for the use of naturist activities.

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Introduction

Dissatisfaction with one’s body is a serious, international problem (Al Sabbah et al. 2009). Large-scale surveys in countries as diverse the United States (Liechty 2010), Brazil (Pelegrini and Petroski 2010) and Finland (Ålgars et al. 2011) find high rates of unhappiness with one’s body, weight control behaviours, and symptoms of body image distortion, even among non-overweight participants. In naturist activities, one is communally naked in the company of non-intimate others who typically have non-idealised bodies (Green 2001). These activities may reduce dissatisfaction with one’s body through exposure to non-idealised bodies (Re et al. 2011), or positive (or even neutral) feedback about one’s own body (Herbozo and Thompson 2006). This current research investigates and applies these potential benefits of naturist activity and is the first to test a specific mediated model of the effect of naturism on body image, self-esteem and life satisfaction.

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Body Image, Self-Esteem and Life Satisfaction

Prior research suggests that negative body image in both women and men stems from pressure to achieve unrealistic ideals of attractiveness (McCreary and Sasse 2000; Striegel-Moore et al. 1986). Frequent exposure to media-based standards of attractiveness, which are often unattainably thin (for females) or muscular (for males), leads to a more negative perception of one’s own body (Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn 2004; Engeln-Maddox 2005; Grabe et al. 2008).

One’s body-concept is an important aspect of one’s overall self-concept, and a well-established body of research demonstrates the relationship between body-image and self-esteem (e.g., Herbozo and Thompson 2006; Kostanski and Gullone 1998; Olivardia et al. 2004). Some of this research specifically supports a causal relationship from body image to self-esteem, rather than the reverse (Hesketh et al. 2004). Similarly, a well established body of prior research provides ample evidence of the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction (e.g., Acun-Kapikiran et al. 2014; Kang et al. 2003; Navarro et al. 2014; Oishi et al. 1999; Paradise and Kernis 2002; Park et al. 2014). This research is largely cross-sectional (rather than experimental or longitudinal) and thus cannot confirm the causal direction of this relationship. However, the direction of effects from self-esteem to life satisfaction has been supported statistically by structural equation modeling or other analyses of mediation effects (see, e.g., Acun-Kapikiran et al. 2014; Kang et al. 2003; Navarro et al. 2014).

If positive body image improves self-esteem, which in turn may affect life satisfaction, it is important to bolster or improve one’s body image. Prior research his investigated methods of doing this, such as exposure to bodies that differ from idealised images. For example, Re et al. (2011) found that brief exposure to heavier bodies increased participants’ preference for heavier looking individuals. Similarly, Swami (2015) found that women reported more positive body image after taking part in a life drawing session: an event in which participants produce drawings of the human figure by observing a nude model present in the room. However, a potentially underused strategy might be found in naturist activities, which could offer a low-cost, widely available solution to the problem of body dissatisfaction.

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Possible Psychological Benefits of Naturism

Naturism (or nudism) is a multi-faceted concept that varies both geographically and over time; the primary element of naturist or nudist subculture is going without clothes. However, this can have complex interactions with other elements of the dominant cultures in which it is based (Smith 1980), or with other concerns, such as the potential for eroticism (Smith and King 2009). Naturism and nudism may also have a variety of political meanings (Cooper 2011); hence, some people may be willing to take part in public nudity, but hesitant to identify themselves as naturists or nudists (Ipsos-Mori 2011). For these reasons, it is difficult to identify a single, universal definition of naturism. However, many of the largest contemporary national and international naturist organisations define naturism as going without clothes in the presence of non-intimate others, or being nude in public without the intention of being sexually stimulating (British Naturism: What is Naturism? 2015; Deschenes 2016).

Across multiple countries, attitudes toward public nudity appear to be improving (Carr-Gomm 2012). Large-scale, representative surveys conducted in 2001 and 2011 show that about a quarter of all Britons have taken part in some naturist activity (e.g., nude sunbathing), and this number is likely growing (Ipsos-Mori 2011). Other signs of internationally softening attitudes toward public nudity include the rising popularity of the World Naked Bike Rides—events where hundreds or thousands of people cycle naked through cities to call attention to the vulnerability of cyclists (Dieleman 2008; Pucher et al. 2011).

Initially, there was significant concern that naturism either reflected or resulted in negative psychological effects (Negy 2004), particularly for children (Okami 1995; Smith and Sparks 1986). However, the empirical research on naturism and public nudity failed to support these assumptions. Oleinick et al. (1966) found no relationship between exposure to nudity in childhood and later psychiatric symptomology. Lewis and Janda (1988) found a positive association between exposure to nudity early in life and willingness to engage in casual sex, but no associations with any other measure of sexual or emotional adjustment. In an 18-year longitudinal study Okami et al. (1998) found no effects of exposure to parental nudity on sexual activity during adolescence, teenage pregnancy, contracting sexually transmitted diseases, or antisocial behaviour such as shoplifting. Indeed, exposure to parental nudity was associated with less usage of recreational drugs and higher levels of self-acceptance. Given the apparent lack of negative effects, it was perhaps unsurprising that the potential positive effects of naturism began to be considered.

Naturist organisations themselves claim that participation in naturist activities should lead to improvements in body image, self-esteem and overall life satisfaction (British Naturism: What is Naturism? 2015; see also O’Reilley 2015). However, very little research has empirically investigated these claims. While some qualitative reports suggest that naturism may reduce self-consciousness (Green 2001), and a few quantitative studies have found an association between positive body image and naturist identity (Story 1979, 1984) or pro-nudity attitudes (Negy and Winton 2008), no studies to date have investigated the effects of actual naturist behaviour. This is important because identification and behaviour may not always be aligned; many more people take part in some clothing-optional activity than would identify themselves as naturists or nudists (Ipsos-Mori 2011).

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Why Should Naturism Have Positive Psychological Effects?

The model suggested by naturist organisations is one in which naturist activities lead to an improvement in body image, which should in turn lead to an improvement in self-esteem and thus to increased life satisfaction (British Naturism: What is Naturism? 2015; O’Reilley 2015). As discussed above, the effects of body image on self-esteem and the relationship between self-esteem and life satisfaction have been extensively supported by prior research (Kang et al. 2003; Kostanski and Gullone 1998; Molloy and Herzberger 1998; Oishi et al. 1999). Thus, the aspect of the model that remains to be tested and explained is the proposed positive effect of naturism on body image.

As discussed above, current models suggest that negative body image in both women and men derives from exposure to, and pressure to achieve, unrealistic ideals of attractiveness (Agliata and Tantleff-Dunn 2004; Engeln-Maddox 2005; Grabe et al. 2008; McCreary and Sasse 2000; Striegel-Moore et al. 1986). However, this effect can be countered by exposure to bodies that differ from these idealised images (Re et al. 2011; Swami 2015). Hence, naturist activities, in which one is able to observe a wide variety of bodies that differ from idealised images, should also be able to counteract these negative effects and promote a more realistic standard of physical attractiveness.

Alternatively, however, naturism may have positive effects due to feedback about one’s own body. Abraczinskas et al. (2012) found that negative weight-related and eating-related comments from one’s parents can affect one’s drive for thinness and encourage bulimic symptomatology in teenagers. However, in a dominant atmosphere of negative feedback about one’s body, positive or even neutral feedback may lead to improved body image (Herbozo and Thompson 2006; Mclaren et al. 2004). Naturist activities, in which individuals spend time naked in the company of non-intimate others, also involve being seen naked by a large number of people in a relatively non-judgemental context, which might lead to less dissatisfaction with one’s body. To date, however, neither of these two possible explanations for naturism’s effects (seeing others vs. being seen by others) has been explored empirically.

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Discussion

Naturist activities contain elements that should promote a more positive body image, higher self-esteem and greater life satisfaction; individuals spend time naked in the company of non-intimate others who typically have non-idealised bodies. However, prior research has not investigated these potential positive effects, or elucidated a model explaining them. This gap was addressed in three studies. A large cross-sectional study (Study 1) found that participants who engaged in more naturist activities also reported greater life satisfaction, and that this relationship was mediated by more positive body image and higher self-esteem. This proposed mediated model fit the data better than a reversed model (in which life satisfaction, self-esteem and body image predicted naturism), was not dependent on gender, and applied more strongly to participants who took part in naturist activity less frequently. Among participants who took part in naturist activities, seeing others naked appeared to be a more important predictor of positive body image than being seen naked by others. Furthermore, in 2 prospective studies of real naturist events (Studies 2 and 3), participation in actual naturist activities resulted in immediate improvements in life satisfaction, an effect that was also mediated by improvements in body image and self-esteem.

Implications and Future Research

It was found that seeing others naked was a stronger predictor of positive body image than was being seen naked by others. This answers an important question about the mechanism through which naturist activity might improve body image, and aligns well with recent research indicating that participating in life-drawing lessons also predicts more positive body image (Swami 2015). However, as with the other findings of this current research, this should not be interpreted as evidence of a causal relationship between seeing others naked and positive body image. Future, experimental research could tease apart the effects of seeing others naked versus the effects of being seen naked oneself; both elements were simultaneously present in all the studies reported here. Also, the inclusion of specific measures of perceptions of others’ bodies during naturist events could clarify whether it is the variety of apparently acceptable bodies, or the non-idealised nature of the bodies that matters most for challenging accepted idealisations. Similarly, including measures of responses to one’s own naked body could help clarify whether positive responses to one’s own body are necessary for improving body-image, or whether these effects occur through an anxiety-reduction mechanism (Mathews et al. 2007), in which a lack of negative consequences of nudity is sufficient.

There were no interactions between gender and naturist activity in any of these studies. Nonetheless, it may also be useful to investigate in further depth whether gender alters any of these effects. It is not clear whether women would feel more positively about their own bodies after seeing the non-idealised bodies of men (and vice versa), or whether seeing non-idealised bodies of others of one’s own gender is necessary, or more important, for these effects to take place. Similarly, across all three studies most of the participants were White. Non-White individuals sometimes ascribe to different standards of attractiveness (Molloy and Herzberger 1998) and may perhaps benefit most from naturism with others of their own ethnicity. Further research with non-White naturists may provide important insights.

Also, body mass index is an important predictor satisfaction with one’s body (Al Sabbah et al. 2009). However, it remains to be seen if the effects of naturism depend on the body-type of the participant, or whether naturism is equally beneficial, regardless of how much or little one resembles idealised body-types. In a similar vein, this research used apparently non-clinical samples of participants to investigate the relationship between naturism, body image, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. The relationships between these variables may be different in participants with clinical levels of body dissatisfaction, such as those with eating disorders (Brannan and Petrie 2011). Thus, even if naturism has positive effects on sub-clinical levels of negative body-image, it should not be assumed that it would have similar effects on clinical populations. Indeed, given the somewhat modest strength of the relationships found in these studies, it seems very important to investigate the moderators of naturism’s potential effects, and the conditions under which it would be most useful.

Concluding Remarks

Naturism remains unconventional, and is sometimes seen as psychologically or sexually unhealthy, even by mental health professionals. However, in recent decades, a significant body of research has failed to find negative effects of naturism on either adults or children. Perhaps unsurprisingly, an increasing number of people are taking part in naturist activities and the focus of some research has shifted toward the potential positive effects of naturism. These current findings add meaningfully to the scant empirical literature on the effects of naturism, and are the first to provide evidence for specific mechanisms behind naturism’s effects. This research should be considered the suggestive beginning of a body of research, rather than a definitive conclusion of one. Nonetheless, it should not only be interesting to those hoping to academically understand the factors affecting our perceptions of our bodies, but also to public health practitioners who may come to see naturism as a cheap, almost universally available means of promoting healthy body-image, positive self-esteem and overall life satisfaction. As more people participate in clothing-optional activities, these potential benefits of naturism are worth exploring.